UN Psywar Aligns with Allied Bombing Campaign in Korea

PSYOP HISTORY

Full Spectrum: Strategic Psywar 1952

UN Psywar Aligns with Allied Bombing Campaign in Korea

By Charles H. Briscoe, PhD

From Veritas, Vol. 8, No. 1, 2012

SIDEBAR

4th MRBC Bomb Warning Announcement for Radio Seoul

KBS “Proclamation of Independence” Programming (via Radio Pusan)

Operation HOAX: The Kojo Invasion Deception of 1952

Operation EYEWASH

Operation RAT KILLER

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Print version of this article (PDF)

In early 1952, the 1st Radio Broadcasting and Leaflet Group (1st RB&L) integrated its organic Psywar capabilities to complement UN strategic air operations. Far East Air Forces Command (FEAF) had to keep pressure on Communist military units, try to influence UN Command (UNC) armistice negotiations, minimize enemy air attack threats, provide close air support (CAS) for UNC forces, and interdict enemy logistical and communications systems.1 Bomb warning leaflet drops coupled with radio broadcasts were natural Psywar operations. It prepared the 1st RB&L to execute Plan PATRIOT emphasizing Korean Independence.2 These two efforts provided good examples for depiction in Operation EYEWASH, a traveling public information display that explained strategic and tactical Psywar operations in Korea to a variety of audiences in Japan.

The purpose of this article is to show how 1st RB&L expanded the UN air, sea, and ground power Psywar theme to exploit the Allied strategic bombing campaign in Korea. It will describe how that integrated effort prepared the Psywar group for Plan PATRIOT, a dramatic, full spectrum documentary that commemorated Independence Day in South Korea. These two missions brought all 1st RB&L capabilities into play and provided good material to illustrate tactical and strategic Psywar operations for Operation EYEWASH. These major successes earned accolades from the Far East Command (FECOM) G-2 Psywar Section and the South Korean president, Syngman Rhee. Though the 1st RB&L Operations and Intelligence Sections unilaterally developed the bomb warning leaflet mission, its well-coordinated linkage to the FEAF strategic bombing campaign was a Psywar coup. Identifying key players will promote better understanding and appreciation of these accomplishments.

CPT Edward C. Janicek, 1st RB&L S-3 Operations Officer, provided guidance on the latest Psywar leaflet.
CPT Edward C. Janicek (center, seated), 1st RB&L S-3 Operations Officer, provided guidance on the latest Psywar leaflet to (L to R) 1LT Elwin D. Hatfield, Chief, Leaflet Section, the Chinese cultural advisor, retired Nationalist Chinese Brigadier Zeng-tse Wong, 2LT Roy A. Gallant, Operations Section, and 1LT Frank R. Mickelsen, Chief, Art Section.

The 1st RB&L Operations section responsible for Psywar leaflet operations was headed by two WWII veterans, Signal Corps Captain (CPT) Edward C. Janicek and Field Artillery First Lieutenant (1LT) Robert D.B. Carlisle. Another artilleryman, Second Lieutenant (2LT) James B. Haynes, Jr., Officer-in-Charge (OIC) of the Information & Education (I&E) Section, developed the Psywar bomb target list. Veteran CPT Robert A. Horn and Corporal (CPL) Thomas M. Klein were the Intelligence Section. Sergeant (SGT) Henry “Hank” Cavanaugh served as Operations Sergeant in the S-3. The Operations, Leaflets, I&E, and Graphics Sections of S-3 collaborated closely with the S-2 researching bomb targets and developing weekly leaflet target lists based on industrial studies of North Korea and the FEAF strategic bombing priorities. The Radio Section, S-3, composed the broadcast warnings for dissemination by Radio Pusan.3

2LT James B. Haynes, Jr.
2LT James B. Haynes, Jr.
WWI Field Artillery Captain, Harold K. Finletter
WWI Field Artillery Captain, Harold K. Finletter

With input from the RB&L staff elements a Psywar leaflet bomb target list was prepared and updated weekly. It supported the priorities of the strategic bombing campaign. 2LT Haynes, the chief coordinator, became de facto Liaison Officer to FEAF. As such, weekly he presented a list of seventy-eight leaflet targets to the 1st RB&L commander, Military Police Corps (MPC) Lieutenant Colonel (LTC) Homer E. Shields, a WWII North Africa and France Psywar veteran, and Colonel (COL) C. Woodall Greene, Director, G-2 Psywar, FECOM for approval. Greene had served as General (GEN) Douglas A. MacArthur’s Psywar Officer in the Southwest Pacific. There was nothing “magic” about the number “78”; it just happened to be the number of planned FEAF bombing missions at the time Psywar began compiling leaflet target lists.4

Once approved, LT Haynes hand-carried the list several blocks down the street to the FEAF headquarters for mission scheduling. There, the FECOM air component command staff that controlled all UN and U.S. air assets in theater turned the Psywar leaflet target list into air mission requests. That simple, routine “joint” staff action changed after the Secretary of the Air Force, Harold K. Finletter, praised FEAF for its “humanitarian bombing campaign in Korea.”5

The ad hoc joint integration accomplished by the 1st RB&L suddenly took on more importance. COL Greene, G-2 Psywar, adroitly deflected FEAF Lieutenant General (LTG) Otto P. Weyland’s “lightning bolt” to LTC Shields. LT Haynes was directed to deliver his list of seventy-eight targets to FEAF headquarters as soon as possible. “When I got there, a red-faced Air Force colonel was waiting inside the entrance. He snatched the list from me, mumbled something about second lieutenants, and stormed off,” remembered Haynes. “I knew then that my leaflet target list would no longer be treated routinely by the Air Force…and fortunately I had already flown a B-29 Superfortress leaflet mission in September 1951.”6

With the UN humanitarian bomb raid warnings the Psywar leaflet and radio themes were able to expand beyond the threat of artillery and naval gunfire barrages. The art staff worked on leaflet designs, while the 3rd Reproduction Company, at the FECOM Publication Center facilities in Motosumiyoshi, mass printed leaflets on Webendorfer Offset and Harris LTV Stream-Fed presses.7 Then, the leaflets were packaged in door bundles for C-47 Skytrain delivery in Korea or loaded as rolls into M129E1/E2 500 lb. leaflet bombs for B-29 squadrons stationed in Japan and B-26 Invader elements on the peninsula. Dates, times, and sites of the FEAF bombing targets were contained in teletype messages to the 4th Mobile Radio Broadcasting Company (MRBC) stations in Korea. The U.S. Army radio officers at each KBS station were responsible for writing and broadcasting humanitarian bomb warnings an hour before the air attacks.

The radio warning announcement shown in this article was one of several hundred broadcast into North Korea in support of Operation “HOAX,” the FECOM deception plan executed in mid-October 1952 to force the Communists back to the Armistice negotiation table.9 FEAF medium and light bombers combined with Allied, U.S. Navy, and FEAF fighter bombers averaged 1,000 sorties a day based on Plans DEADLOCK and STRIKE supporting “HOAX.” Military and industrial targets in North Korea were bombed, rocketed, napalmed, and machine gunned day and night when Communists stalled Armistice talks at Panmunjom.10 This combined UN-Army-Air Force-Navy effort employing the full spectrum of 1st RB&L capabilities prepared the unit for a special mission--highlighting Korean Independence Day, 1 March 1919.

In conjunction with the bomb target warning campaign, the 1st RB&L mounted a two-pronged Psywar operation called Plan PATRIOT in early 1952. It was to remind South Koreans that the Proclamation of Independence from Japan on 1 March 1919 was a defiant manifestation of nationalism. Preserving their independence was portrayed as a symbol of pride for the South Korean people. The 1st RB&L capitalized on this Psywar opportunity.

Plan PATRIOT depended upon leaflets from Japan and radio broadcasts originating in Korea. Since the 3rd Reproduction Company had just received the “Cadillac” model of printing presses from the States, PATRIOT provided an opportunity to demonstrate its worth. This state-of-the-art printing machine was the 35” x 45” Harris LTV Stream-Fed Multi-Lithograph press, capable of printing four-color leaflets in a single run. The older 17” x 22” Webendorfer Lithograph presses required separate print runs as each color was layered onto a paper product. This was tedious, demanding, and time-consuming because separate lithograph plates had to be “cut” for each color in the design. Print men had to fastidiously align the paper between color runs.11 The leaflet “test run” prior to preparing the Plan PATRIOT products combined the UN flag with the national colors of the fifty-four member states.12 As plans were made to print the flag leaflets, research on the 1 March 1919 activities was being done by the Group S-2 and S-3 Information & Education Sections to help artists portray Independence activities.

Two soldiers from the 3rd Reproduction Company, Corporal Seguisfredo Mercado and Private First Class Wilfred Lopez, carefully stack rolls of leaflets into a M129E1/E2 500 lb. leaflet bomb.
Two soldiers from the 3rd Reproduction Company, Corporal (CPL) Seguisfredo Mercado (L) and Private First Class (PFC) Wilfred Lopez, carefully stack rolls of leaflets into a M129E1/E2 500 lb. leaflet bomb.

While 1st RB&L Korean artists in Tokyo sketched leaflet proposals supporting the Independence Day theme, radio broadcast writers worked on dramatic commentaries for Plan PATRIOT which were to be ready by 19 February 1952.13 In the meantime, 2LT Frank R. Mickelsen, the S-3 Graphics Section leader, and CPL Francis J. “Frank” Jackmen, a 3rd Reproduction Company soldier, visiting POW (prisoner of war) camps around Pusan to interrogate prisoners on the effectiveness of the 1st RB&L surrender leaflets, were enlisted by 2LT Eddie Deerfield at Radio Pusan. He wanted the port city searched for original signatories of the Proclamation of Independence. With help from the police, government officials, Radio Pusan interpreters, and interested citizens, the American soldiers managed to find three of the original thirty-one signers: two in Pusan (Assemblyman Lee Kap Sung and La In Hyop) and a third, O Se Chong, in Taegu, living in abject poverty, forgotten. The Radio Taegu detachment personnel recorded O Se Chong’s recollections. The commentaries were completed on 23 February 1952 for airing on the Voice of the UN Command (VUNC) from Radio Tokyo studios and rebroadcast from KBS stations in Korea.14 This initiative prompted more ideas.

Republic of Korea President Syngman Rhee
Republic of Korea President Syngman Rhee
LTG James A. Van Fleet
LTG James A. Van Fleet, EUSA commander

Special speeches by President Syngman Rhee and Lieutenant General (LTG) James A. Van Fleet, the EUSA commander, reinforced the significance of Korean Independence Day in 1952. Their recorded proclamations (LT Deerfield did President Rhee in Pusan and CPL Sigmund S. “Sig” Front did LTG Van Fleet in Seoul) connected the independence theme to war against the Communists. These recordings, one of which highlighted the sound of the Independence Gong (like our Liberty Bell), were sent to Tokyo to be incorporated into the broadcast programming.15 Deerfield reviewed the recording of President Rhee’s speech with U.S. Ambassador John J. Muccio and his staff on 26 February 1952. The ambassador commented that the “speech was extremely mild compared to previous remarks” and left LT Deerfield to negotiate redaction of “two offensive paragraphs” with Mr. Minn Tuk Ki.16 This completed the preparations.

Just twelve days after being alerted to prepare Plan PATRIOT, 1st RB&L was ready to execute. Six special multi-color propaganda leaflets that commemorated Korean independence had been produced, printed, and packaged for air delivery (24,445,000 were printed in eight days).17 The Korean weekly news sheets for 29 February had a color headline connected to the Independence Day celebration.18 An hour and a half of daily radio programming was dedicated by VUNC broadcasting from Radio Tokyo facilities. Plan PATRIOT, showing the solidarity of the UN alliance behind South Korea’s fight against Communism, was approved to run from 27 February through 2 March 1952.19

Considering that the execution would originate from Radio Pusan with reprogramming by all other KBS radio stations and VUNC, Plan PATRIOT demonstrated full spectrum exploitation of a Psywar theme. It epitomized the “most powerful Psywar program, a dramatic commentary that smoothly blended news and drama into something more easily digested and retained longer by the primary ‘target audience,’ the South Koreans”22 According to 1st RB&L Command Report No. 7, Plan PATRIOT turned February 1952 into a “banner month” for the Psywarriors because all elements in Japan and Korea contributed to the success.23

These well-executed missions caused the FECOM staff to enlist the assistance of the 1st RB&L in a deception plan called Operation “HOAX.” Continued recalcitrance of Communist negotiators at the Armistice negotiations despite increased air and naval bombardment of North Korea prompted drastic measures—threat of UN amphibious and airborne invasions behind enemy lines. (See Operation “HOAX” sidebar). The deception plan, rehearsed and executed, however, did not cause the Communists to reinforce Wonsan to block an Allied “invasion.” Successful or not, the Chinese and North Korean delegates did return to Panmunjom shortly afterwards.24 Despite these successes, promoting Psywar capabilities was a constant for the 1st RB&L.

Operation EYEWASH was a collective effort. More than fifty people were involved in “The Psywar Caper” and “untold hundreds of hours” were invested to prepare and validate the presentation.41 The key architects of the mobile Psywar display, Sergeants John A. Davenport, a Franklin School of Professional Art [New York City (NYC)] graduate, Larry Meyer, a Pratt Institute (NYC) artist/illustrator, and Robert C. McConaughey, a University of Nebraska journalist, received Certificates of Achievement and Letters of Commendation from LTC Shields.42 EYEWASH was ready to educate the U.S. Army infantry divisions in Japan on Psywar.

The successful accomplishment of these missions demonstrated that the 1st RB&L was fully capable of coordinating and executing a variety of missions simultaneously with FEAF and the South Korean government. Unintentionally, the 1st RB&L had demonstrated how strategic Army Psywar could improve the UN air campaign. The Korean Independence Day programs that personally involved President Syngman Rhee were a UN Psywar coup because it boosted the ego of the longtime nationalist and gave Washington and New York a temporary respite from his reunification rhetoric. After surpassing the one billion mark for Psywar leaflets dropped on North Korea in December 1951 and with well-established broadcast programming at VUNC and Radio Pusan, the G-2 Psywar Division shifted from direct involvement in all aspects of Psywar to simply providing strategic Psywar guidance and approving 1st RB&L products. The bomb warning leaflets and Plan PATRIOT showed that Psywar was ‘value-added’ to UN combat operations in Korea. Operation EYEWASH illustrated how the 1st RB&L applied all of its Psywar capabilities to support UN and FECOM war efforts.

ENDNOTES

  1. Far East Air Forces Command Report, November 1952, Volume II from Walter G. Hermes, Truce Tent and Fighting Front, United States Army in the Korean War (Washington, DC: U.S. Army Center of Military History, 2005), 397. [return]
  2. James B. Haynes, interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 17 September 2010, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited by name and date. [return]
  3. Haynes interview, 17 September 2010. [return]
  4. Having a very competentSGT Robert C. McConaughey, as the I&E Sergeant, LT Haynes filled the ad hoc position of 1st RB&L Liaison Officer to the Far East Air Force in Tokyo. Haynes interview, 20 September 2010. [return]
  5. Haynes interview, 17 September 2010. [return]
  6. Haynes interview, 17 September 2010. LTC Homer E. Shields flew on a B-29 leaflet drop over North Korea on 29 August 1951. 343rd Bombardment Squadron (M), 98th Bombardment Wing (M) ADVON, APO 328 Memorandum for Record, SUBJECT: Tax Exemption dated 1 September 1951. COL Homer E. Shields Collection, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter referred to asShields Collection. [return]
  7. Charles R. Broderick letter (Yokohama) to The Brodericks, Marion, Illinois, dated 22 January 1952in Charles R. Broderick Collection, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Broderick letter and date. [return]
  8. Robert L. Darcy Collection, Box 2, Folders 10 and 13, U.S. Army Military History Institute, Carlisle, PA, news clipping, “U.N. Swaps Warnings and Bombs For Peace Talks at Panmunjom,” Newsweek, 18 August 1952 hereafter cited as Darcy Collection with appropriate box and folder therein. [return]
  9. U.S. Department of the Navy.James A. Fields, Jr., History of United States Naval Operations KOREA (Washington, DC: Naval History Division, 1962), 444; Robert Frank Futrell, The United States Air Force in Korea 1950-1953 (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1961), 494. [return]
  10. “U.N. Swaps Warnings and Bombs for Peace Table at Panmunjom,” Newsweek, 18 August 1952 and unsourced “Pyongyang Target Blasted in Hour-Long B-29 Raid,” in Box 2, Folder 10, Darcy Collection. [return]
  11. Broderick letter (Yokohama)to The Brodericks in Marion, Illinois, dated 2 February 1952,Broderick Collection. [return]
  12. “Psywar Pushes Independence Theme” and “Mickelsen, Jackman Return from Korea,” The Proper Gander, Vol. II, No. 5, 1, 2, 4, 1 March 1952, 1st Radio Broadcasting & Leaflet Group, Tokyo, Japan, Broderick Collection. [return]
  13. Command Report, 1st Radio Broadcasting & Leaflet Group, 8239 AU, APO 500, Headquarters and Service Command, General Headquarters, Far East Command, 1-31 January 1952, National Archives (NARA) Record Group (RG) 319, Box 5840, Folder 1: 1st RB&L Group, 8239th AU, Jan-Mar 1952, hereafter cited by NARA Record Group, Box, and Folder; The Proper Gander, Vol. II, No. 5, 1, 2, 4, 1 March 1952, Broderick Collection. [return]
  14. Command Report, 1st Radio Broadcasting & Leaflet Group, 1-29 February 1952, NARA Record Group 319, Box 5840, Folder 1: 1st RB&L Group, 8239th AU, Jan-Mar 1952; General Headquarters, Far East Command, Psychological Warfare Section, First Radio Broadcasting and Leaflet Group, APO 500. Psywar Leaflet #1162, “The Meaning of March 1, 1919,” in Korean dated 20 February 1952, Haynes Collection; “Psywar Pushes Independence Theme,” The Proper Gander, 1 March 1952, 1, 4,Broderick Collection. [return]
  15. Command Report, 1st RB&L Group-29 February 1952, NARA, Record Group 319, Box 5840, Folder 1: 1st RB&L Group, 8239th AU, Jan-Mar 1952, retired LTC Eddie Deerfield, interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 16 September 2010, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited by name and date; Sigmund S. Front, interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 3 June 2010, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited by name and date. [return]
  16. Headquarters, 1st Radio Broadcasting & Leaflet Gp, 4th Mobile Radio Broadcasting Co, Radio Pusan, APO 59, 1LT Eddie Deerfield letter to CPT Fred Laffey, SUBJECT: Report on American Embassy Reaction to Syngman Rhee Declaration of Independence Speech, 27 February 1952; Deerfield letter to CPT Robert A. Leadley, SUBJECT: Psychological Warfare Radio Operations on Korean Broadcasting System from Pusan, Korea, 31 March 1952, Eddie Deerfield Collection, Box 4, Folder 1: Reports to Psywar HQ, U.S. Army Military History Institute, Carlisle, PA, hereafter cited as Deerfield Collection. [return]
  17. Command Report, 1st RB&L Group, 1-31 January 1952, NARA, Record Group 319, Box 5840, Folder 1: 1st RB&L Group, 8239th AU, Jan-Mar 1952. [return]
  18. Command Report, 1st RB&L Group, 1-29 February 1952, NARA Record Group 319, Box 5840, Folder 1: 1st RB&L Group, 8239th AU, Jan-Mar 1952. [return]
  19. GHQ, FECOM, 1st RB&L Group Psywar Leaflet #1162, “The Meaning of March 1, 1919,” in Korean dated 20 February 1952, Haynes Collection; “Psywar Pushes Independence Theme,” The Proper Gander, 1 March 1952, 1, 4, Broderick Collection. [return]
  20. 1LT Eddie Deerfield excerpted portions of the recorded speeches by President Syngman Rhee, Assemblyman Lee Kap Sung, BG Lee Han Limb, and Seoul Press president Park Chong Hwa. Headquarters, 1st Radio Broadcasting & Leaflet Gp, 4th Mobile Radio Broadcasting Co, Radio Pusan, APO 59, Deerfield letter to CPT Robert A. Leadley, SUBJECT: KBS Declaration of Independence Programming, 2 March 1952, Deerfield Collection, Box 4, Folder 1: Reports to Psywar. [return]
  21. 1st RB&L Group, 4th MRBC, Radio Pusan, Deerfield letter to CPT Robert A. Leadley, SUBJECT: Psychological Warfare Radio Operations on Korean Broadcasting System from Pusan, Korea, 31 March 1952, Deerfield Collection, Box 2, Folder 2: Radio Script, Psywar in Combat. [return]
  22. “Ideas in Action,” undated Stars & Stripes (Tokyo) article, Haynes Collection. [return]
  23. Command Reports, 1st RB&L Group, 1-29 February 1952 and 1-31 March 1952, NARA, Record Group 319, Box 5840, Folder 1: 1st RB&L Group, 8239th AU, Jan-Mar 1952. [return]
  24. Futrell, The United States Air Force in Korea 1950-1953, 497; Hermes, Truce Tent and Fighting Front, 329. [return]
  25. Haynes interview, 22 September 2010. [return]
  26. 1st RB&L, Classified Psywar leaflet #1221 for North Korea was printed in mid-September 1952. It is most likely that leaflet #1228, “UN Overwhelming Power” dated 26 September 1952 was that dropped by Far East Air Forces (FEAF) because it contained cutout photos of an aircraft carrier, battleship, a fighter-bomber aircraft, heavy artillery, anda tank. Haynes Collection; Robert C. McConaughey, interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 5 October 2010, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited by name and date. [return]
  27. Hermes, Truce Tent and Fighting Front, 328. [return]
  28. Fields, History of United States Naval Operations KOREA, 444; Futrell, The United States Air Force in Korea 1950-1953, 494. [return]
  29. Fields, History of United States Naval Operations KOREA, 444; Futrell, The United States Air Force in Korea 1950-1953, 494. [return]
  30. Fields, History of United States Naval Operations KOREA, 444, 445; COL Robert I. Channon, interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 7 September 2011, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited by name and date; 1st RB&L Classified Psywar leaflet #1221 for North Korea was printed in mid-September 1952, but all were destroyed. Haynes Collection; Futrell, The United States Air Force in Korea 1950-1953, 494-496. [return]
  31. Fields, History of United States Naval Operations KOREA, 445; Contrary to Hermes, Truce Tent and Fighting Front, the 187th ARCT paratroopers had loadedaboard the C-119s at Taegu and were prepared to combat jump into North Korea, when the air transport fleet wheeled about and headed to Japan. This was related by the former 187th ARCT S-3 Plans Officer, CPT Robert I. Channon. Channon interview, 7 September 2011. [return]
  32. Fields, History of United States Naval Operations KOREA, 445; Channon interview, 7 September 2011. [return]
  33. Futrell, The United States Air Force in Korea 1950-1953, 497; Hermes, Truce Tent and Fighting Front, 329. [return]
  34. Futrell, The United States Air Force in Korea 1950-1953, 497; Hermes, Truce Tent and Fighting Front, 329. [return]
  35. McConaughey interview, 5 October 2010. [return]
  36. Thomas M. Klein, Robert J. Herguth, and Robert McConaughey, Psychological Warfare in Korea: 1952 Life and Times in the First Radio Broadcasting and Leaflet Group…50 Years Later 2002 (Round Hill, GA: Round Hill Productions, 2002), 214, hereafter cited as Life & Times 2002. [return]
  37. “Groupers Combine Acting, Technical Talents to Produce Top Notch Professional Drama,” The Proper Gander, 19 May 1952, 2, Darcy Collection, Box 2, File 9; Timothy L. Shields, interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 19 January 2011, Fort Bragg, NC, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited by name and date. [return]
  38. “Groupers Combine Acting, Technical Talents to Produce Top Notch Professional Drama,” The Proper Gander, 19 May 1952, 2, Darcy Collection, Box 2, File 9. [return]
  39. “Groupers Combine Acting, Technical Talents to Produce Top Notch Professional Drama,” The Proper Gander, 19 May 1952, 2, Darcy Collection, Box 2, File 9. [return]
  40. Shields interview, 19 January 2011. [return]
  41. “Groupers Combine Acting, Technical Talents to Produce Top Notch Professional Drama,” The Proper Gander, 19 May 1952, 2, Darcy Collection, Box 2, File 9. [return]
  42. McConaughey interview, 5 October 2010; Life and Times 2002, 160-161, 214-215. [return]
  43. Haynes interview, 20 September 2010; McConaughey interview, 4 October 2010. [return]
  44. 1st Radio Broadcasting & Leaflet Group leaflet #8377, “Dissident Elements in South Korea,” 13 December 1952, Robert L. Darcy Papers, Box 4, Folder 4, Manuscript Collection, U.S. Army History Institute, Carlisle, PA; John A. Squicciarini, 1st L&L, interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 30 November 2004, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC; Walter G. Hermes, Truce Tent and Fighting Front, United States Army in the Korean War (Washington, DC: U.S. Army Center of Military History, 2005), 182-183. [return]