Private Andre V. Carson visited the Statue of Liberty on weekend pass from basic training at Fort Dix, NJ.

SPECIAL FORCES HISTORY

America’s Foreign Legionnaires

The Lodge Act Soldiers, Part I

By Charles H. Briscoe, PhD

From Veritas, Vol. 5, No. 1, 2009

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Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr.
Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr.

After World War II, some fourteen million refugees formed a huge stateless population in Western Europe. The Western Allies simply referred to them collectively as “displaced persons,” or “DPs.” Many released prisoners of war (POWs) trying to get home or into Western zones of Germany chose to join the population Diaspora. To provide the stability necessary for postwar economic recovery, Western Allies resettled or repatriated the bulk of them between 1945 and 1947. However, a large East European population refused to return to their Soviet-occupied countries. These people filled DP camps throughout West Germany.1 A U.S. senator who had seen how foreign units had been integrated into the German and Russian militaries envisioned the creation of similar postwar units in West Germany.2

Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr., the Republican junior senator from Massachusetts, had been pushing to form a Volunteer Freedom Corps (VFC) since 1948. A VFC, filled with stateless males, would serve as a bulwark against Communism in Europe. Although some American legislators perceived its merit, postwar Western European governments regarded it as a possible economic burden and potential threat. Interest at home was not that great either.

The first and only step towards a VFC was passed by Congress on 30 June 1950, five days after North Korea invaded the South. The initial act [the Lodge-Philbin Act (U.S. Public Law 597, 81st Congress, 2nd Session), referred to as the Lodge Act] authorized the voluntary enlistment of 2,500 unmarried foreign national males in the U.S. Army.3 This act provided more than a hundred Eastern European soldiers to Army Special Forces and Psychological Warfare units between 1951 and 1955.4

A Red Scare swept the United States in the early 1950s.
A Red Scare swept the United States in the early 1950s.

The purpose of this first installment of a two-part article is to explain the Lodge Act, to show why enlistment goals were not met, to describe the recruiting, testing, selection, enlistment and preparation for service in Army replacement centers in Germany, and the shipment of the alien enlisted soldiers to the United States for basic recruit training. Very few of the Eastern European native speakers in Special Forces (SF) in the early days were Lodge Act men. Little more than 100 of the more than 800 recruited under the Lodge Act served in SF.5 Timing was poor for several reasons: the postwar world was split by an ideological Cold War that would last more than forty years; America was in the throes of an anti-Communist Red Scare and war in Korea; and the military was slowly complying with a presidential order to racially integrate.

Like many Congressionally- mandated programs, alien enlistment got lukewarm support from the Pentagon and Army commanders in Europe. Army Regulation (AR) 601-249, Alien Enlistment, provided general guidance to enlist 2,500 Eastern European males.6 Because recruiting was a mission of the Army Adjutant General (AG), the U.S. Army Europe (USAREUR) AG was given the task. That headquarters staff element instituted an enlistment process that was based on individual applications by alien volunteers. Advertisement became the responsibility of the U.S. European Command (EUCOM) and USAREUR Public Information Offices (PIO). The foreign labor service units supporting the American and British forces in Germany and France were the easiest to target for recruits.7

Although two-thirds of the postwar American labor force hired in Germany and Austria were natives, the U.S. Army also managed labor service (LS) elements of displaced Polish, Latvian, Czech, Lithuanian, Estonian, Albanian, and Bulgarian males, trained and organized as paramilitary guard, engineer, transportation, and public health medical units by nationality.8 In northern Germany, the British Army of the Rhine (BAOR) recruited aliens, like Henry M. Kwiatkowski from Poland, for its auxiliary service units.9 The first step was to distribute bulletin board notices to the U.S. Army personnel in charge of the LS units in Germany and France.

Henry Kwiatkowski
Henry Kwiatkowski stands on the elevated boardwalk between the LS living tents at Captieu, France. The cantonment grounds turned into a veritable mud hole when it rained.
Private Vaclav Hradecky with his English instructors at Camp Grohn, Bremen, Germany in 1952.
Private Vaclav Hradecky with his English instructors at Camp Grohn, Bremen, Germany in 1952.

Vaclav Hradecky from Bilenice, Czechoslovakia, was assisted by his labor service unit commander, Captain (CPT) Karel Cerny, a WWII Czech Army major, and CPT Price, the U.S. Army advisor. Price’s secretary, who spoke Czech, typed up Hradecky’s application.10 *George S. Taylor, Poznan, Poland, had the program explained to him by LT Merritt from Texas. He helped Taylor with his application and arranged the CIC (Counter-Intelligence Corps) interview.11 Frantisek “Frank” Jaks from Jablonc, Czechoslovakia, was in a LS unit in Nuremberg, Germany, waiting approval to emigrate to Australia, when he applied for enlistment.12 Not everyone who wanted to join the U.S. Army received support from their LS chain of command.

“When I got back to France [after taking the entrance exams in Germany], I discovered that my Labor Service lieutenant had charged me as AWOL [absent without leave],” said Jan Wiatr from Welnowiez, Poland. “But CPT Sanders, an American officer of Polish descent who had befriended me, smoothed that over. However a month later when I got the letter to report to Sonthofen for in-processing into the U.S. Army, that lieutenant really went crazy. CPT Sanders ignored his protests and even had his driver take me to Sonthofen in the staff car. I left Captieu ‘in style.’ I found out later that four guys from my platoon in France, were accepted,” laughed Wiatr. “That’s why he was so mad.”13

Private Henryk Szarek shakes hands with the 307th Replacement Group (EUCOM) commander before leaving Zweibrucken with five other Lodge Act enlistees for Camp Grohn in Bremen.
Private Henryk Szarek shakes hands with the 307th Replacement Group (EUCOM) commander before leaving Zweibrucken with five other Lodge Act enlistees for Camp Grohn in Bremen.
Jan Wiatr is among these 4011th Polish Labor Service Company volunteers from Kaiserslautern, Germany, that came to Captieu, France.
Jan Wiatr is among these 4011th Polish Labor Service Company volunteers from Kaiserslautern, Germany, that came to Captieu, France.
Private Henryk Szarek with fellow French Foreign Legion paratroopers in Hanoi in 1951.
Private Henryk Szarek (right rear) with fellow French Foreign Legion paratroopers in Hanoi in 1951.

A few months after applying, Henryk “Frenchie” Szarek got a letter from USAREUR headquarters to report to the 4097th Polish LS Battalion in Pirmasens, Germany, to demonstrate his suitability for military service. After two months guarding ammunition bunkers and motor pools in a blue dyed Army enlisted man’s uniform, the ex-French Foreign Legion paratrooper and Indochina veteran finally gave the American captain in charge an ultimatum: “If I’m not accepted for U.S. Army enlistment in two weeks, I’m quitting [the LS unit] and going back to France. I didn’t come here to pull guard in a ‘fireman’s uniform.’”14 Recruiting and selection from LS units was not sufficient to fill the requirement for 2,500 single Eastern European men.

The USAREUR PIO extended their advertising campaign to Austria, Belgium, Holland, and Luxembourg, in 1951. Press releases and news film clips were sent to European and Allied-approved German and Austrian newspapers, news magazines, and to movie theaters. The semi-monthly HUETE, a German photo magazine, and the monthly news magazine, Der Monat, produced by EUCOM contained articles on Lodge Act enlistment.15 The notices did produce some results.

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The Coal Miner’s Diploma of Honor awarded to *Stanley Skowron in Limburg, Holland.
The Coal Miner’s Diploma of Honor awarded to *Stanley Skowron in Limburg, Holland.

Polish volunteer *Stanley Minkinow saw a poster in the Munich train station.16 A news clip about the Volunteer Freedom Corps showing in a local movie theater got the attention of Peter V. Astalos from Cernauti, Romania working in a German coal mine in the British zone, and *Stanley Skowron from Podgorzc, Poland working in a Dutch coal mine in Limburg. Teodor Padalinski, another Pole from Zyrardow learned of the Lodge Act program in 1950, working in Holland. “But, no specifics for application were given; no address, nothing. It wasn’t until I joined a Polish Labor Service unit in France that I got any specifics.”17

Teodor Padalinski with the Polish Labor Service Company in Captieu, France.
Teodor Padalinski with the Polish Labor Service Company in Captieu, France.
*John C. Anderson
*John C. Anderson (left) served in the Latvian Labor Service in Ludwigsburg, Germany.
Logos of Voice of America and Radio Free Europe.
Logos of Radio Free Europe and Voice of America.

Latvian *John C. Anderson had emigrated to Belgium in 1947 to work three years in the coal mines to get citizenship. When the government reneged on its promise, Anderson returned to Germany to join a LS Company in Ludwigsburg. There, he applied for enlistment and was in the second group.18 Voice of America and Radio Free Europe explained the Lodge Act incentives to Eastern Europeans listening covertly. Rudolf “Rudi” G. Horvath heard a Voice of America broadcast in Budapest, Hungary.19 But the men not working for the U.S. military had a more difficult time applying for enlistment.

Because Lodge Act recruiting was a staff-managed program, it did not receive command emphasis from Army leaders and the chain of command. After swimming the Danube River at Linz, Austria, to escape in July 1950, Rudi Horvath spent months trying to locate an American soldier in Munich who knew anything about the program. He could not find one of the “special recruiting offices opened in the U.S. zone that processed some 2,600 applicants by September 1951.”20 By then the quota had been raised to 12,500. Horvath finally found a clerk typist who had heard about it. “He was working late, so I asked him to type up an application for me. When he said that he did not have the required form, I suggested that he improvise using a standard request form with my personal data and add that I was applying for enlistment under the Lodge Act. When he was done, the clerk agreed to send the ‘doctored up’ form to Heidelberg for me,” said Horvath.21 Then, Rudi returned to washing the cars of American servicemen to survive. Other young men were more fortunate.

Private Frank Jaks performing guard duty at the main gate of theCzech 7991st Labor Service Detachment, 4091st LSC, Nuremberg, Germany, in 1952.
Private Frank Jaks performing guard duty at the main gate of theCzech 7991st Labor Service Detachment, 4091st LSC, Nuremberg, Germany, in 1952.
Private Andre V. Carson
Private Andre V. Carson
Baltic Labor Service Commemorative and Honor Insignia worn by Georgs Liepens, 8920 Labor Service Company in November 1949.
Baltic Labor Service Commemorative and Honor Insignia worn by Georgs Liepens, 8920 Labor Service Company in November 1949.
Shoulder patch of the Czech Labor Service units working for the U.S. Army in Germany.
Shoulder patch of the Czech Labor Service units working for the U.S. Army in Germany.

*Andre Carson from Löm, Bulgaria, was in his final semester at the University of Munich when the U.S. Army colonel in charge of the supply depot asked him about his future plans. After the American officer explained the Lodge Act enlistment incentives, Carson decided to apply. His emigration to Australia like that of Czech Frank Jaks was still in process.22 John Koenig from Yugoslavia was working in the heating plant of the American kaserne in Hoescht, Germany. The officer in charge of the facility, Warrant Officer Senior Grade (CWO) Mussard from Massachusetts took him to the Army Test Station in Frankfurt.23 Still, “getting the word out” in Western Europe was only part of the enlistment problem.

Unbeknownst to most applicants, the Army Counter Intelligence Corp. (CIC) was conducting security investigations. How long these background checks took depended on how long the applicant had been living in Western Europe. Obviously, life behind the Iron Curtain could not be investigated. “Street work” for investigations required time and was not a high priority for State and Defense Departments that were being rocked by the Red Scare.24

*Walter J. Smith
*Walter J. Smith

“Background investigations were done to determine if parents, relatives, or friends were associated with the Communist Party. CIC agents acted like there was a ‘Commie’ behind every bush,” remembered Czech Vaclav Hradecky. “My German identification (ID) card listed me as Yugoslavian. Still, the CIC talked with the Austrian farmer that my family worked for during the war,” said John Koenig.25 “The German farmer in Kleinhirschbach where I had done forced labor for two years was questioned,” said *Walter J. Smith from Majdan, Poland.26 It was a bit different for Julius “Bear” Reinitzer from Prague, Czechoslovakia.

Reinitzer used a “blue chip” with the CIC. After escaping in late 1949, he accepted a job secreting agents across the border for them. On his third trip he was caught after the agent was wounded. Reinitzer was sentenced to 14 years of hard labor in the Kachomvich, Czechoslovakia uranium mine. After two unsuccessful attempts, the “Bear” finally got away and reached West Germany on 22 June 1952. CIC arranged for the aptitude tests in Munich.27 But his case was atypical.

Another problem that plagued the administrators was determining appropriate aptitude tests for the alien applicants. Unlike in the United States, schooling was interrupted for most children in occupied European countries for seven years. Thus, the majority of candidates had not graduated high school. It was several months before “approved” applicants received a letter to report to an Army Test Station. Those rejected for security reasons never got a response.28

U.S. Army Corporal Henry Chludzinski, a Polish speaker, was detailed to assist Lodge Act applicants at the Mannheim Army Test Center in 1950. *George S. Taylor was an applicant for Army enlistment. When Taylor was accepted in mid-October 1951, he had already served five years with the Polish LS in Germany.
U.S. Army Corporal Henry Chludzinski (left), a Polish speaker, was detailed to assist Lodge Act applicants at the Mannheim Army Test Center in 1950. *George S. Taylor (right in his 4088th Polish Labor Service Company uniform) was an applicant for Army enlistment. When Taylor was accepted in mid-October 1951, he had already served five years with the Polish LS in Germany.
COL Foster, the Replacement Group commander, met some of the new recruits at the Zweibrucken train station. The overnight valises and thick briefcases were referred to as “schnitzel” bags by the East Europeans.
COL Foster, the Replacement Group commander, met some of the new recruits at the Zweibrucken train station. The overnight valises and thick briefcases were referred to as “schnitzel” bags by the East Europeans.

The aptitude tests and qualification criteria for aliens proved to be a “work in progress” for the five-year duration of the Lodge Act enlistment program. Determining which military aptitude test to administer was tough for Army Test Centers in Europe. The first group was given the exams for Officer Candidate School. Topics ranged from mathematics, science, and basic geography to English grammar and reading comprehension. The tests were in English. Since what little English most applicants knew was spoken, German-speaking U.S. soldiers were provided to assist. Unfortunately, every candidate did not speak German.29

This cartoon from a Polish newspaper depicts children being sent to Germany as farm laborers.
This cartoon from a Polish newspaper depicts children being sent to Germany as farm laborers.

“The first part of testing there was a lot of sign language being used for instructions. All exams were extremely tough and there were time limits. When there were multiple choices for answers and true/false questions, I gambled to complete on time,” remembered Rudi Horvath. “Mathematics and science are universal languages so my high scores in them probably balanced the low English reading test results. That’s how I think that I passed.”30 Frank Jaks, a Czech, reached the same conclusion.31

At the end of the first part, about two-thirds were retained for the second battery of tests. By the third battery, only fifteen remained from the original group of fifty. And when these few were told to return to their LS units or civilian jobs, most departed not knowing whether they had passed or failed the entrance exams.32 EUCOM reported that alien enlistees made scores on the Armed Forces qualification tests comparable to those of American high school graduates.33 “How I passed I’ll never know because as a child, my father took me out of school in my fifth year. Since I could write my name and do basic arithmetic, he figured that was enough education for a farmer,” said Walter J. Smith (Wladyslaw J. Naumowicz) from Majdan, Poland.34

By the time *Andre Carson took the “entrance” exam it was being offered in English and German.35 When Vaclav Hradecky took his examinations in Munich in mid-1952, applicants could choose a Russian, French, German, or English version. “I took mine in Russian because I understood that better than German,” remembered the Czech applicant.36 It was late fall of 1951 before the first acceptable Lodge Act applicants assembled in Sonthofen, Germany, after their initial in-processing at the 7720th Replacement Battalion (EUCOM).

Sonthofen was located in the Bavarian Alps in southern Germany. “Picturesque would be an understatement. The facility had been an SS officer candidate school. The barracks were more like a hotel with two to four men per room with their own bathroom. Many rooms had balconies and views of the mountains. The mess hall was in an adjacent building. The alien recruits were fed standard American fare. Daily formations were held in an enclosed quadrangle,” recalled Second Lieutenant (2LT) Clarence C. “Larry” Mann, the company commander.37

Anthony Pilarczyk
Anthony Pilarczyk

Receiving the letter to report to Sonthofen in October 1951 was the “happiest moment in my life. I had been bumping around in Western Europe since I had escaped Poland in 1946,” said Anthony J. Pilarczyk.38 Like Martin Urich from Filibovo, Yugoslavia, who served in the 9th Panzer Division, Ex-Flag Sergeant Peter V. Astalos, one of the few Romanian volunteers, had also been a Panzer tank commander on the Russian Front. “If it hadn’t been for the U.S. Army, it would have been the French Foreign Legion. I learned to love freedom and democracy later, but at that time, my primary motivation was to be a soldier again,” stated Astalos.39 The U.S. Army replacement personnel at Sonthofen were pleased with the motivation and high quality of the Lodge Act recruits.

2LT Clarence C. “Larry” Mann
2LT Clarence C. “Larry” Mann

2LT Larry Mann, who spoke German and some French, expected orders to Korea after graduating from New York University (Bronx) in June 1951. Instead, the infantry officer was sent to Sonthofen, Germany, to command a replacement company with two sections instead of platoons: one section was Iron Curtain country refugees who volunteered for five years in the U.S. Army in return for American citizenship; and the other, a modified basic training section was for U.S. military male dependents. “We operated a kind of military prep school for military-age sons of senior Army personnel in Europe bound for college in the States. For the alien recruits, in addition to the administrative processing prior to induction, we issued complete uniforms, ID [identification] cards and “dog tags,” arranged physical and dental examinations, scheduled batteries of inoculations, provided individual soldier skills training, presented basic English classes, and oriented them in U.S. customs.”40

Not everyone passed the medical exams. Some had never had one. “I tested positive for tuberculosis (TB) and diphtheria. After being quarantined for three or four weeks in the hospital, it was determined that I was a carrier, but not contagious. These were probably picked up when we were in the Warsaw ghetto,” said *Stanley Minkinow from Lodz, Poland. “Since my original group had left for the States, I joined the next one.”41 These were not the only challenges faced by LT Mann and his small staff.

2LT Larry Mann’s wife, Joan
2LT Larry Mann’s wife, Joan

“Several Army sergeants served as tactical trainers and two corporals spoke several languages. The recruits spoke fifteen different languages in various dialects. They also had varying levels of education. I can remember using five guys to get a message across. I wasn’t sure if the final version was what I intended. It was the old ‘pass the message’ game that one played as a child. We used some of the officers’ wives to teach English. The enlistees had to speak and respond in English only,” said Mann. “My wife was a teacher and kept some letters written by the soldiers.”42 “My English amounted to basically ‘Yes,’ ‘No,’ ‘Thank you,’ and ‘Good morning,’” commented Frank Jaks from Czechoslovakia.43 There were other issues.

This letter by Private Henryk Szarek was done as an English language writing requirement for Mrs. Joan Mann.
This letter by Private Henryk Szarek was done as an English language writing requirement for Mrs. Joan Mann.

“Getting the East European recruits into uniform was tough. Most men were shorter and wider in the body than the average American. We tailored Quartermaster uniforms to fit. These were probably the best dressed enlisted soldiers in the Army at the time, said LT Mann.44 “The truth of the matter, the U.S. Army supply sergeants could not equate European metric sizes to the American sizes in inches. So, we really looked sharp in those tailored uniforms,” recalled *Andre Carson from Bulgaria.45 Unaccustomed to the higher standard of living in the Army, the recruits treasured their new clothing and equipment. Shoes were always polished to perfection and their ODs (olive drab dress uniform) were treated like “Sunday best” clothing.46 “Oh, yeah! We felt like special people in those tailored uniforms,” said Paul Ettman from Sierdaz, Poland.47

Sergeant First Class (SFC) Henry M. Koefoot, a American Army tactical NCO (non-commissioned officer), said: “They’re the best. No ‘whys’ or ‘ifs’ when you tell them to do something. All you see is a streak of lightning and the job is done.”48 “Physical fitness was not a problem. The men were in their twenties and early thirties and had lived a hard life. They did not frequent Sick Call. These soldiers were just happy to be there. The aliens were getting paid more money [$72] than they had ever earned in their lives,” said LT Mann.49 “Payday turned the PX into a miniature madhouse. These soldiers guzzled gallons of Cokes and fruit juice, chewed four or five sticks of gum at a time, and bought almost every item in stock,” wrote a Stars and Stripes reporter.50 “In the excitement I bought a box of pie mix thinking that there was pie inside,” Rudi Horvath laughed years afterward.52 Before leaving for Bremerhaven, the Army port of debarkation for all American troops leaving for the United States, every recruit was offered a seven-day leave to visit friends or relatives living in Western Europe.53

This completes Part I of “America’s Foreign Legionnaires: The Lodge Act Soldiers in the U.S. Army.” Part II addresses the relocation of the replacement battalion from Sonthofen to Camp Grohn (Bremen) in July 1952 and back again in December 1952. Camp Kilmer was the transition point for basic combat training and those slated for English language training at Fort Devens, Massachusetts. The Lodge Act soldiers in basic and advanced combat training, parachute schools, and early assignments will follow. Included will be the stories of three Czech anti-Communist guerrillas, Josef and Ctirad “Ray” Masin and Milam Paumer, who bypassed the application, testing phase, Sonthofen, and went straight to Fort Dix, New Jersey.67 They were among the hundred Lodge Act soldiers that served in Special Forces during the early days (1952-1960).

The purpose of this article was to introduce the Lodge Act, the enlistment procedures, and to permit some of the veterans to explain their experiences. I hope that this first installment of a two-part article for Veritas will prompt other veterans to participate. More is better.

ENDNOTES

  1. James Jay Carafano, “Mobilizing Europe’s Stateless: America’s Plan for a Cold War Army,” Journal of Cold War Studies 1:2 (1999) 61. [return]
  2. Carafano, “Mobilizing Europe’s Stateless,” 66. [return]
  3. Senator Henry Cabot Lodge initiated the bill in the U.S. Senate and Congressman Philip J. Philbin, a Democrat from Massachusetts introduced the Alien Enlistment (Lodge) Bill in the U.S. House of Representatives. Credit rightfully belongs to the Senator, hence it has been referred to as the Lodge Act. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lodge-Philbin_Act. [return]
  4. James B. Jacobs and Leslie Anne Hayes, “Aliens in the U.S. Armed Forces: A Historico-Legal Analysis,” Armed Forces and Society, 7:2 (Winter 1981) 197. [return]
  5. Jacobs and Hayes, “Aliens in the U.S. Armed Forces,” 197. [return]
  6. Letter, Lodge to General James Lawton Collins, Army Chief of Staff, 26 November 1951, Henry Cabot Lodge II Papers, Legislative Subject Files, Box 39, Massachusetts Historical Society cited in Carafano, “Mobilizing America’s Stateless,” 69. [return]
  7. The British Pioneer Corps had afforded refugees from Nazism during World War II a chance to fight against Adolf Hitler. They ultimately had fifteen battalions. H.W. Brands, Jr., “A Cold War Foreign Legion? The Eisenhower Administration and the Volunteer Freedom Corps,” Military Affairs 52 (January 1988), 7-8. [return]
  8. Resume of Army Roll-Up Following World War II, File 39, US Army Center of Military History, 83-87, and Top Secret Supplement, Annual Historical Report, Headquarters, US Army Europe (U), 1 January 1953-30 June 1954, 75, US Army Center of Military History cited in Carfano, “Mobilizing America’s Stateless,” 69. [return]
  9. Lodge Act soldier Henry Kwiatkowski from Poland served in the British Auxiliary Service in the 317th Tank Transport Company at Berkhausen, Germany. Retired SFC Henry Kwiatkowski telephone interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 3 and 21 October 2008, Silver Springs, MD, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Kwiatkowski interview with date. [return]
  10. Retired LTC Vaclav Hradecky, telephone interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 9 September 2008, New Ipswich, NH, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, hereafter cited as Hradecky interview with date. [return]
  11. Retired CSM George S. Taylor, telephone interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 11 September 2008, Hopedale, MA, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Taylor interview with date. [return]
  12. Retired MAJ Frantisek (Frank) Jaks interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 14 June 2007, Fort Bragg, NC, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter as Jaks interview with date. [return]
  13. Retired SFC Jan Wiatr, interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 2 October 2007, Fayetteville, NC, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Wiatr interview with date. [return]
  14. Henryk Szarek, interview by Robert Seals, Arlington, MA, 27 August 2006, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Szarek interview with date and Headquarters, 4097 Labor Service Battalion, APO 189, US Army Europe, Certificate of Discharge dated 22 June 1953, signed by Captain Zadzislaw Baraniecki. Henryk Szarek personal files, copy in USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC. [return]
  15. “Stateless Europeans Enlist,” U.S. European Command (EUCOM) Information Bulletin (September 1951). Armed Forces Information and Education Division, EUCOM (Frankfurt, Germany), September 1951, http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/GerRecon/omg1951Sept/reference/history.omg1951sept.i0034.pdf dated 30 January 2009 and “Aliens Start Army Training,” EUCOM Information Bulletin (November 1951), http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/Efacs/GerRecon/omg1951Nov/reference/history.omg1951nov.adenauerproposal.pdf dated 30 January 2009. [return]
  16. Retired MAJ Stanley Minkinow, telephone interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 23 October 2008, Huntsville, Al, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Minkinow interview with date, “Stateless Europeans Enlist,” U.S. EUCOM Information Bulletin (September 1951) and “Aliens Start Army Training,” U.S. EUCOM Information Bulletin (November 1951). [return]
  17. Retired SGM Peter V. Astalos, interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 25 June 2008, Fayetteville, NC, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Astalos interview with date, retired SFC Stanley Skowron, interview by Dr. Briscoe, 21 September 2008, Fayetteville, NC, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Skowron interview with date; retired SFC Teodor W. Padalinksi, telephone interview by Dr. Briscoe, 18 July 2008, Boulder, CO, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Padalinski interview with date. [return]
  18. Retired SGM John C. Anderson, telephone interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 26 June 2008, Denver, CO, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Anderson interview with date. [return]
  19. Astalos interview, 25 June 2008, Rudolf G. Horvath, telephone interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 15 May 2008, Dumont, NJ, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC; Horvath, “Escape from Behind the Iron Curtain: The Odyssey of a Lodge Act SF Soldier” Special Warfare, Vol. 16, No. 1 (April 2003), 37. [return]
  20. “Stateless Europeans Enlist,” U.S. EUCOM Information Bulletin (September 1951). [return]
  21. Horvath interview, 15 May 2008, Horvath, unpublished memoir, 15, and Horvath “Escape from Behind the Iron Curtain,” 43. [return]
  22. Retired Chief Warrant Officer Four (CW4) Andre Vasilev Carson, interviews by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 28 November and 7 December 2007, Fayetteville, NC, digital recordings, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Carson interview with date; Jaks interview, 14 June 2007. [return]
  23. Retired MAJ John Koenig, interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 4 September 2008, Fayetteville, NC, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Koenig interview with date. [return]
  24. H.W. Brands, Jr., “A Cold War Foreign Legion”, 8. [return]
  25. Koenig interview, 4 September 2008. [return]
  26. Walter J. Smith, telephone interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 28 July 2008, Lochbuie, CO, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Smith interview with date. [return]
  27. Retired SGM Julius Reinitzer, telephone interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 25 August 2008, Hudson, NH, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter Reinitzer interview and date. [return]
  28. U.S. Army CIC agents interviewed Ruhr coal mine supervisors, miners, and families where Peter V. Astalos worked until 1952. Checking Labor Service (LS) references simply entailed talking with American military officer supervisors, ethnic company chains of command, and reviewing personnel records at the LS Basic Training Center in Mannheim. They interviewed the German farmer for whom Walter J. Smith (Wladyslaw J. Naumowicz), a Pole, had worked during WWII. Smith interview, 28 July 2008, Astalos interview, 27 June 2008, Padalinski interview, 18 July 2008, retired MSG Frank Kokosza, interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 26 June 2008, Fayetteville, NC, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Kokosza interview with date, Horvath interview, 16 May 2008; Carson interview, 28 November 2007. [return]
  29. Wiatr interview, 2 October 2007; Horvath interview, 16 May 2008. [return]
  30. Horvath interview, 16 May 2008. [return]
  31. Jaks interview, 14 June 2007. [return]
  32. Horvath interview, 16 May 2008 and Wiatr interview, 14 June 2007. [return]
  33. “Stateless Europeans Enlist,” U.S. EUCOM Information Bulletin (September 1951). [return]
  34. Smith interview, 28 July 2008. [return]
  35. Carson interviews, 28 November and 7 December 2007. [return]
  36. Hradecky interview, 9 September 2008. [return]
  37. Retired COL Clarence C. Mann, telephone interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 14 April 2008, Tucson, AZ, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Mann interview with date. [return]
  38. Retired SSgt Anthony J. Pilarczyk, telephone interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 10 September 2008, Vacaville, CA, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Pilarczch with date. [return]
  39. Astalos interview, 25 June 2008. [return]
  40. Mann interview, 14 April 2008. [return]
  41. Minkinow interview, 23 October 2008. [return]
  42. Mann interview, 14 April 2008; Hradecky interview, 10 September 2008. [return]
  43. Jaks interview, 14 June 2007. [return]
  44. Mann interview, 14 April 2008. [return]
  45. Carson interview, 28 November 2007. [return]
  46. Robert J. Dunphy, “27 Refugees Find Army Leading to New Way of Life,” The Stars and Stripes (11 October 1953): 7. [return]
  47. Retired SFC Paul R. Ettman, telephone interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 19 September 2008, Worcester, MA, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, hereafter cited as Ettman interview with date. [return]
  48. Dunphy, “27 Refugees Find Army Leading to New Way of Life,” 7. [return]
  49. Mann interview, 14 April 2008. [return]
  50. Dunphy, “27 Refugees Find Army Leading to New Way of Life,” 7. Monthly pay for a corporal in the Czech Labor Service Company in Nuremberg in 1952 was 173 Deutsch Marks (DM) or about $42 in American Occupation script money depending on the exchange rate. Hradecky interview, 10 September 2008. [return]
  51. Mann interview, 14 April 2008; Jaks interview, 14 June 2007. [return]
  52. Horvath interview, 16 May 2008. [return]
  53. Dunphy, “27 Refugees Find Army Leading to New Way of Life,” 7 and “Stateless Europeans Enlist,” U.S. EUCOM Information Bulletin (September 1951). [return]
  54. Minkinow interview, 23 October 2008. [return]
  55. Wiatr interview, 2 October 2007. [return]
  56. Jaks interview, 14 June 2007. [return]
  57. Astalos interview, 25 June 2008; Padalinski interview, 23 July 2008. [return]
  58. Hradecky interview, 10 September 2008. [return]
  59. Kokosza interview, 26 June 2008. [return]
  60. Carson interview, 28 November 2007; Wiatr interview, 2 October 2007. [return]
  61. Koenig interview, 4 September 2008. [return]
  62. Wiatr interview, 2 October 2007. [return]
  63. Horvath interview, 16 May 2008. [return]
  64. Szarek interview, 27 August 2006. [return]
  65. Smith interview, 28 July 2008. [return]
  66. Minkinow interview, 23 October 2008. [return]
  67. Josef Masin, telephone interview by Dr. Charles H. Briscoe, 10 November 2008, Santa Barbara, CA, digital recording, USASOC History Office Classified Files, Fort Bragg, NC, and Barbara Masin, Gauntlet, (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2006), 320. [return]